In the foundations unit, we discussed foundational architecture throughout antiquity, as well as the cultures that produced this architecture. We began with the mysterious Stonehenge in England - a peculiar arrangement of monoliths forming circles (a larger one enclosing a smaller one) on the earth's surface. This structure, part of which is now missing, once formed a surprisingly accurate sundial. Exactly how or for what purpose Stonehenge was constructed remains a mystery. In the nearby village of Durington Walls, there is what appears to be a wooden prototype for Stonehenge.
In addition to the concepts of forming circles and lines on the earth's surface and establishing an axis, an important concept in the foundations unit was that of stacking. Just as the makers of Stonehenge stacked their monoliths, the Sumerians stacked bricks to construct buildings such as the ziggurat of Ur-Nammu. This stacking can be seen to represent an aspiration towards heaven.
Ancient Egyptians stacked giant blocks of stone to make such buildings as the step pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. The pyramid consists of six mastabas stacked atop one another. The iconic pyramids at Giza are more developed examples and are particularly rich in meaning. Originally each pyramid was coated with limestone and its top capped with gold. When the sun struck the golden tip, its light was metaphorically carried down the four edges of the pyramid to the "four corners" of the earth. The pyramid's massive scale represented the power and superiority of the pharaoh. Its verticality represented the pharaoh's upward journey to the gods in the afterlife. The stacked shape of the pyramids can also be seen to represent the stratified society of ancient Egypt.
Unlike the earlier Minoans, whose architecture represents no fear of invasion, the Mycenaeans built fortifying walls around the city of Mycenae. The entrance into the city is the Lion Gate, representing another manifestation of stacking. Atop the gate is a triangular block of stone with a carving of two lions facing a central column, but the meaning of these symbols is unknown.
The ancient Greeks focused not on the hope of an afterlife, as the Egyptians did, but on achieving perfection on Earth. Their pursuit of perfection is seen in the way they proportioned each building according to the proportions of its parts. Like the Egyptians, the Greeks constructed massive columns by stacking cylindrical layers of stone. The great Acropolis of Athens is the site of the remarkable Parthenon, temple to the goddess Athena. In building the Parthenon, the Athenians intentionally included subtle imperfections to ensure that the temple would appear perfect to the human eye. A less unified composition is that of the Erechtheion, also located in the Acropolis. In its Porch of the Maidens, caryatids - carved figures of women enslaved by the Greeks - act as columns to hold up the roof.
The ancient Romans were influenced extensively by Greek culture, even borrowing its gods but giving them different names. Roman architecture used Greek orders and precise proportioning. With the use of concrete and vaulting, however, the Romans exceeded Greek building scale and shaped space in a way the Greeks never could. The Pantheon demonstrates just how much space the Romans were able to capture within a single dome. The Romans introduced many new building types. The Colosseum in Rome is another good example of stacking. Borrowing again from the Greeks, each arcade layer has engaged columns that represent a different architectural order. The first layer is Doric; the second is Ionic; and the third is Corinthian. The fourth has Corinthian pilasters. The Roman baths, theatres, amphitheatres, and stadiums were a way to distract and occupy a large population.
Particularly interesting to study is the city of Pompeii, preserved by ash from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. One can, in a sense, see the city as it existed in a moment of time, untarnished by subsequent centuries of change and deterioration.
Studying the foundations of architecture is extremely important for us as designers and amateur philosophers, for in these foundations we see part of the process of human history - mistakes, failures, successes, and the pursuit of significance. Architecture would not be what it is today if early developments had not been made. Classical influence, in particular, is inescapable even in our modern society.
This image (as unoriginal as it may be) represents the foundations unit well, as Stonehenge was where our foundational study began. The image also incorporates the idea of stacking. The sunrise (as I assume it is) is fitting as well.
Symbol - Florence vs. Cologne
Although technically a Gothic cathedral, the Duomo in Florence, Italy harkens back to classical design. Filippo Brunelleschi won the competition to design and orchestrate the construction of the cathedral's massive dome. He had visited Rome to study the architecture there, and was determined to rival the massive dome of the Pantheon. The construction of Brunelleschi's dome, begun in 1420, marked the resurrection of Roman building scale. The cathedral as a whole, in fact, seems to speak not a Gothic language, but the language of antiquity. This bold statement of classical rebirth is made apparent as the dome rises magnificently above surrounding buildings. This statement radiated a new attitude of faith in human endeavor.
The Kolner Dom cathedral in Cologne, Germany speaks a very different language, that is, one of the majesty and mystery of heaven. Seen from above, the cathedral boasts a large, white cross - a clear symbol of the Christian faith. The focus of the cathedral is one of verticality, light, and dematerialization. Tall spires and pointed arches reach toward heaven; giant stained glass windows filter in ethereal light.
Both cathedrals are symbolic messages to the cities in which they were built. The Duomo - with its massive dome, rounded arches, geometric shapes, and light palette - communicated to the citizens of Florence that classicism was rising again. The Kolner Dom - with its emphasis on verticality and light - pointed the citizens of Cologne toward the hope of heaven. No doubt the people of Florence and Cologne recognized these symbols, which were most certainly accompanied by cultural attitudes.
Understanding cultural context and the meanings therein can help us to understand symbols and how they spoke to people of the time.
Impressions - Florence vs. Salisbury
The Duomo cathedral in Florence, Italy and the Cathedral of Saint Mary in Salisbury, England give very different first impressions. The Duomo is quite different from a typical Gothic cathedral. Its palette is comparatively light; it is more geometric and visually solid, with an emphasis on form. Its impressive dome boldly soars above its surroundings, implying not so much a spirit of verticality but one of mass. Atop the dome and other roofed areas are terra cotta tiles. Exterior decoration displays some geometric forms. The structure that supports the two domes (one inside the other) is hidden from view.
The Salisbury cathedral emphasizes verticality with its pointed elements. Compared to the Duomo, it is visually less heavy, although its palette is darker. Large stained glass windows fill the cathedral interior with mystical light. Emphasis is on dematerialization of form. Decoration is delicate and intricate. Structure is externalized, demonstrated especially by the flying buttresses.
Both cathedrals have a colorful language of their own. The Duomo is lighter in palette, with almost a playful tone. Salisbury conveys a more serious attitude, but its stained glass windows create a colorful interior display. Both cathedrals tell stories with colorful imagery.
The choice of palette, form, materials, etc. for both cathedrals directly relates to the messages each one was built to convey. Both cathedrals are soaringly large and required the patronage of an entity as large as the Church.
Language - Florence vs. Amiens
The Duomo cathedral and the Notre Dame cathedral at Amiens in France speak different design languages. Duomo's nearly classical elements speak of the rebirth of antiquity. The cathedral does, however, speak a somewhat mixed language, incorporating Christian Gothic elements as well. The Amiens cathedral, on the other hand, contains a purity in the cohesion of its elements, being a perfect example of unadulterated Gothic styling. As one reflects on context, it seems somewhat appropriate that each cathedral developed in the place it did: Duomo in Italy - where the Renaissance would begin - and the Amiens cathedral in then still heavily Gothic France.
The smoothing of the ornamentation at Duomo does in fact signal changes in the attitude of the Church as it approached the Renaissance. Focus was shifting from the intricate Gothic language of heaven to a more geometric style and humanistic line of thought. Despite being more smoothed-out, the Duomo cathedral does have sculpted figures. The sculpture present in both cathedrals enhances the human experience by telling rich stories of the Christian religion - pages of the Bible carved in stone.
2) Domestic medieval interiors typically had a great hall where many different activities took place. This hall contained a dais, a screen, a centrally located fire pit (or later, a fireplace), and sometimes a minstrels' gallery above the screen. Colors were rich, including saturated green, blue, scarlet, violet, white, brown, and russet. Interior lighting was minimal, supplied by firelight, torches, candles, or lamps. Floors were composed of dirt, stone, clay, or brick; upper floors were composed of wood. Walls were made of wood paneling, stone, and plaster. Windows were small, although later in the period they became larger with the decreasing of outside threats. Glass was not prevalent. Doors were wooden and rectangular, with wrought iron hinges. Textiles were very important in these interiors, adding warmth to rooms yet remaining easily portable decorative features. Wall hangings were very common. Ceilings were vaulted, beamed, or timber-roofed. Furniture was sparse but included chairs, benches, stools, tables, cupboards, buffets, chests, and beds.
Images from:
Harwood, Buie. Architecture and Interior Design Through the 18th Century, pg. 156. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002.
2) When viewing buildings and artifacts left behind by other civilizations, it is always important to understand cultural context. The character of Carson in McCaulay's Motel of the Mysteries instinctively ascribes religious connotations to objects that actually had merely secular or practical significance. Everything is assumed to be part of a sacred burial ritual while practical functions are not even considered. Carson misinterprets the objects he encounters because he doesn't know anything about the cultural context of the lost civilization he has stumbled upon. He relies on the objects themselves as his only information source.
Because of the internet, false information can be transmitted quickly and easily. One need not have information inspected for accuracy and approved for publication before disseminating it abroad. When encountering this wealth of information on the internet, many people tend to believe what they read and see without questioning its validity. Assumptions are often made in the absence of familiarity with the context in which people, objects, and situations exist. When using the web as an information source, one should consult other sources as well in order to establish its validity.
3) The pyramids at Giza - constructed for the Egyptian pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure - are displays of power, wealth, status, and eternality. Their massiveness and soaring verticality emphasize the pharaoh's dominant position over his subjects, his privileged communication with the gods (as a god-king himself), and his eternal existence in the afterlife. By means of his pyramid, his body and possessions are protected and his soul is directed heavenward. The pyramids appear to be solid, impenetrable masses set apart from the landscape on which they sit. Entrance into them is not advertised or immediately apparent. One stands in awe at their majesty, but is not welcomed inside. They are like sculptures rising from the surface of the ground, appropriate for viewing but not for entering into. In sharp contrast, the funerary temple of Queen Hatshepsut emphasizes horizontality and openness. It has a sense of being integrated into its environment rather than standing out from it. Upon viewing it, one is invited to venture inside, the means of entrance being immediately apparent in the form of a large ramp. Numerous openings along the building's facade lessen the aesthetic heaviness of the building material and invoke a curiosity to peer inside. This building form may reflect Hapshetsut's unique feminine influence. Instead of emphasizing power and dominance, her tomb seems almost submissive in nature. It does not seek to impose its glory but instead extends its welcome, reflecting almost a feminine nurturing quality.
4) In examining Egyptian and Greek architecture for the purpose of comparing and contrasting, it is helpful to choose a building type such as a temple, present in both cultures. Perhaps the most obvious examples would be the Egyptian Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak and the Greek Parthenon in Athens. Both feature a myriad of columns and emphasize symmetry and axial progression. Both communicate stories through stone carvings. The columns of the Karnak temple's hypostyle hall depict the exploits of the pharaohs, the mighty god-kings; the pediment sculpture of the Parthenon celebrates the goddess Athena. But despite obvious similarities between the two temples, Egyptian and Grecian architectural forms represent differing views concerning life and spirituality. Surviving Egyptian architecture is massive to represent permanence and the importance of the afterlife. Repetition of forms reflects the cyclical nature of life and existence so integral to Egyptian thought. Stylized forms repeated throughout time emphasize the importance of tradition.
5) The massiveness and heaviness of Egyptian tomb architecture is meant to convey the idea of permanence and eternality. Just as the soul of the pharaoh will exist for eternity, so his abode must last forever. Egyptian furniture, on the other hand, was built for the practical purpose of providing seating. Often constructed of wood, this furniture doesn't have the quality of permanence that tomb architecture has. As furniture was built for the Egyptians to use in their earthly lives, one could argue that there was no reason for it to last forever. To ancient Egyptians, life on earth was only the beginning of existence and was perhaps quite unimportant in comparison to the afterlife (although it appears that early on the idea of an afterlife only applied to pharaohs). There is a problem, however, in the sense that the surviving examples we have of Egyptian furniture come from royal tombs. Unfortunately, we don't have a clear knowledge of furniture as it existed in the household of the common Egyptian.
6) The two urns depict images of men (rulers or perhaps even gods) in a dominant role over women. On both urns, the male figure is seated on a throne while female figures appear to be attending to him. On the first urn, a woman appears to be handing the male ruler/god his sword and shield. Men, not women, were powerful warriors. On the second urn, the ruler/god holds a cornucopia as he sits, as well as a royal scepter topped with an eagle (the favorite bird of Zeus). The female figures on the urn, particularly the one approaching him from the front, appear to present him with offerings. These images reflect a highly male-dominated society. The urns themselves were almost certainly produced by male artisans. Commenting on ancient Grecian culture, Harwood says, "Males possess independence, wealth, ownership, and education. Women, on the other hand, are their fathers' or husbands' property, being restricted by law, politics, custom, and family relationships. Their main duties are to bear children and tend the family household. Few women artists are known, and nothing by those acknowledged survives" (Harwood, 64).
As a means of understanding Grecian culture, these urns are helpful but not sufficient, as they represent such a small percentage of life and art in ancient Greece.
After much internal debate, I chose this image to represent the "theories" unit because each proponent of a theory tends to believe that he or she has the "truth."
